Spinus spinus (Linnaeus, 1758)

This species breeds in boreal and temperate lowland, submontane and montane conifer forests, mainly spruce (Picea), and in fairly open mixed deciduous and conifer forests, including fir (Abies) and pine (Pinus). It also frequents a wide variety of other trees, including larch (Larix), alder (Alnus) and birch (Betula), together with non-native conifers in plantations, parks and gardens. It is found in similar habitats outside the breeding season as well as on heaths, commons, orchards, weedy thickets, parks and gardens. In the eastern Mediterranean and Middle East it occurs in casuarina (Casuarina) trees, fruit trees, plantations and edges of cultivation and in North Africa it is found in acacias (Acacia). The breeding season begins late February or March and runs until August and the timing is dependent on the cone crop. The nest is a small ball of conifer twigs, bark strips, plant fibres, roots and down, heather, grass, moss, lichens, animal hair, feathers and cobwebs and is placed against the trunk or in the outer branches of a tall tree, up to 20 m above ground. It lays three to five eggs (Clement 2016). It feeds principally on seeds, particularly of conifers, alder, birch and herbs and in the breeding season it also takes invertebrates. Northern populations are mostly migratory while some southern populations are resident (Snow and Perrins 1998).